Developing L2 Speaking Fluency in Online Learning Through Two Motivation-Based Instructional Frameworks

Alimorad, Z., & Yazdani, S. (2020). Self-image improvement and Iranian EFL learners’ oral performance: Effects on complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Journal of Language and Education, 6(4), 11-29. https://doi.org/10.17323/‌jle.‌2020.9772     

Arifin, M., Annizar, A. M., Khusnuridlo, M., Soebahar, A. H., & Yudiawan, A. (2025). Acceptance and use of technology in online learning in higher education: A student perspective. Journal of Education and E-Learning Research, 12(1), 104–114. https://doi.org/10.20448/jeelr.v12i1.6449

Blake, C. (2009). Potential of text-based Internet chats for improving oral fluency in a second language. The Modern Language Journal, 93(2), 227-240. https://doi.‌org/‌10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00858.x

Bower, K. (2017). Explaining motivation in language learning: A framework for evaluation and research. The Language Learning Journal, 47(5), 558-574. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2017.1321035

Chan, L. (2014). Effects of an imagery training strategy on Chinese university students’ possible second language selves and learning experiences. In K. Csizér & M. Magid (Eds.), The impact of self-concept on language learning (pp. 357-376). Multilingual Matters.

Chang, M. M., & Lehman, J. D. (2002). Learning foreign language through an interactive multimedia program: An experimental study on the effects of the relevance component of the ARCS model. Calico Journal, 20(1), 81-98. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v20i1.81-98

Deci, E. L., & Ryan. R. M. (2011). Self-determination theory. SAGE.

De Jong, N. H., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2013). Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(5), 893–916. https://doi.org/10.1017/S014271641‌20000‌6‌9‌

Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity, and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Multilingual Matters.

Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the language learner revisited. Routledge.

Ebn-Abbasi, F., Nushi, M., & Fattahi, N. (2022). The role of L2 motivational self system and grit in EFL learners' willingness to communicate: A study of public school vs. private English language institute learners. Frontiers in Education, 7, Article 837714. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.837714

Ghasemi, F. (2021). L2 Motivational Self System in Practice: Alleviating Students’ Learned Helplessness Through a Vision-Based Program. School Mental Health, 14, 179-188.

Guilloteaux, M. J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2008). Motivating language learners: A classroom‐oriented investigation of the effects of motivational strategies on student motivation. TESOL Quarterly, 42(1), 55-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.‌1545-‌7249.‌2008.tb00207.x  

Hamouda, A. (2020). The effect of virtual classes on Saudi EFL students’ speaking skills. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature, and Translation, 3(4), 175-204.

Handley, Z. L., & Wang, H. (2024). What do the measures of utterance fluency employed in automatic speech evaluation (ASE) tell us about oral proficiency?. Language Assessment Quarterly, 21(1), 3-32. https://doi.org/10.‌1080/15434303.2023.2283839

Henry, A., & Liu, M. (2024). L2 motivation and self regulated learning: An integrated model. System, 123, Article 103301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.‌system.‌2024.103301

Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.‌94.3.319

Huett, J. B., Kalinowski, K. E., Moller, L., & Huett, K. C. (2008). Improving the motivation and retention of online students through the use of ARCS-based e-mails. American Journal of Distance Education, 22(3), 159-176. https://doi.‌org/10.1080/08923640802224451

Jeong, D., Park, C., & Eun, Y. (2023). Effects of infection control education program using flipped learning based on the ARCS model for nursing students: A mixed method. Healthcare, 11(20), Article 2731. https://doi.org/10.3390/‌healthcare11202731

Jiang, P., Namaziandost, E., Azizi, Z., & Razmi, M. H. (2023). Exploring the effects of online learning on EFL learners' motivation, anxiety, and attitudes during the COVID-19 pandemic: a focus on Iran. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 42(3), 2310–2324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04013-x

Johnson, B., Brand, D., Zimmerman, E., & Kirsch, M. (2022). Drive, instinct, reflex—Applications to treatment of anxiety, depressive, and addictive disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 870415. https://doi.org/10.3389/‌fpsyg.2022.870415

Keller, J. M. (1979). Motivation and instructional design: A Theoretical perspective. Journal of Instructional Development 2(4), 26-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/‌BF02904345

Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10. https://doi.org/10.‌1007/BF02905780

Keller, J. M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational process in computer‐based instruction and distance education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1999(78), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1002/TL.7804

Keller, J. M. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance: The ARCS model approach. Springer.

Keller, J. M. (2016). Motivation, learning, and technology: Applying the ARCS-V motivation model. Participatory Educational Research, 3(2), 1-15. https://doi.‌org/‌10.17275/per.16.06.3.2

Kim, Y. K., & Kim, T. Y. (2011). The effect of Korean secondary school students’ perceptual learning styles and ideal L2 self on motivated L2 behavior and English proficiency. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 11(1), 21-42. https://doi.org/10.15738/KJELL.11.1.201103.21

Kormos, J., & Dénes, M. (2004). Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners. System, 32(2), 145-164. https://doi.‌org/10.1016/j.system.2004.01.001

Kormos, J., & Préfontaine, Y. (2017). Affective factors influencing fluent performance: French learners’ appraisals of second language speech tasks. Language Teaching Research, 21(6), 699-716. https://doi.org/10.1177%‌2F1362168816683562

Kurt, P. Y., & Keçik, İ. (2017). The effects of ARCS motivational model on student motivation to learn English. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 2(10), 22-44. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.254605

Lamb, M. (2012). A self system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation to learn English in urban and rural settings. Language Learning, 62(4), 997-1023. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00719.x

Lee, S., & Koszalka, T. A. (2016). Course-level implementation of First Principles, goal orientations, and cognitive engagement: a multilevel mediation model. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(2), 365-375. (2016). https://doi.org/10.‌1007/s12564-016-9431-z

Li, L., & Huang, C. Q. (2024). The incorporation of peer learning into MosoTeach‐supported flipped language class: Effects on student motivation, participation, feedback and test performance. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(2), 557-572. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12898

Ma, L., & Lee, C. S. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of blended learning using the ARCS model. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(5), 1397-1408. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12579  

Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954

Mehrin, I. (2017). Autonomous language learning: Bangladeshi undergraduates’ attitudes and perceptions. BELTA Journal, 1(1), 124-142 https://doi.org/‌10.‌36832/beltaj.2017.0101.07

Naghavian, M. (2024). English learners' beliefs about L2 speaking fluency: Insights from elicited metaphor analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 108 (3), 719-740. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12952

Nagle, C. (2021). Using expectancy value theory to understand motivation, persistence, and achievement in university‐level foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 54(4), 1238-1256. https://doi.org/10.1111/‌flan.12569

Nguyen, L. V., Giang, H., & Nuong, N. T. M. (2020). Motivational practice in high-schools in Vietnam: EFL teachers’ strategies from student perspective. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 8(30), 49-60.

Razagifard, P. (2013). The impact of text‐based CMC on improving L2 oral fluency. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(3), 270-279. https://doi.org/10.‌1111/‌jcal.12000  

Safdari, S. (2021). Operationalizing L2 motivational self system: Improving EFL learners’ motivation through a vision enhancement program. Language Teaching Research, 25(2), 282-305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819846

Sato, M., & Lara, P. (2019). Interaction vision intervention to increase second language motivation: A classroom study. In M. Sato & S. Loewen (Eds.), Evidence-based second language pedagogy: A collection of instructed second language acquisition studies (pp. 287-313). Routledge.

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Pearson.

Segalowitz, N. S. (2010). Cognitive bases of second language fluency. Routledge.

Segalowitz, N., & Freed, B. F. (2004). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition: Learning Spanish in at home and study abroad contexts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26(2), 173-19. http://doi.org/10.‌1017/‌S0272263104262027

Suzuki, S., & Kormos, J. (2022). The multidimensionality of second language oral fluency: Interfacing cognitive fluency and utterance fluency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(1), 38-64. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000‌899

Suzuki, S., & Kormos, J. (2025). The moderating role of L2 proficiency in the predictive power of L1 fluency on L2 utterance fluency. Language Testing, 42(1), 73-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/02655322241241851

Tavakoli, P., & Hunter, A. M. (2018). Is fluency being ‘neglected’ in the classroom? Teacher understanding of fluency and related classroom practices. Language Teaching Research, 22(3), 330-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/136216881770‌8462

Tavakoli, P., Nakatsuhara, F., & Hunter, A.-M. (2020). Aspects of fluency across assessed levels of speaking proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 104(1), 169-191. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12620

Timpe-Laughlin, V., Sydorenko, T., & Daurio, P. (2022). Using spoken dialogue technology for L2 speaking practice: What do teachers think?. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(5-6), 1194-1217. https://doi.org/10.1080/‌09588221.‌2020.‌1774904

Ucar, H., & Kumtepe, A. T. (2020). Effects of the ARCS‐V‐based motivational strategies on online learners' academic performance, motivation, volition, and course interest. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 36(3), 335-349. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12404

Wu, T-T. (2018). Improving the effectiveness of English vocabulary review by integrating ARCS with mobile game-based learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(3), 315-323. http://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12244

Xu, J., & Wang, Y. (2022). The differential mediating roles of ideal and ought-to L2 writing selves between growth mindsets and self-regulated writing strategies. System, 110, Article 102900. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.‌2022.‌102900

Yan, X., Kim, H. R., & Kim, J. Y. (2020). Dimensionality of speech fluency: Examining the relationships among complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) features of speaking performances on the Aptis test. Language Testing, 38(4), 485-510. http://doi.org/10.1177/0265532220951508

Ye, X., & Hu, G. (2025). The effects of three motivational interventions on EFL learners’ L2MSS: A longitudinal perspective. System, 129, Article 103584. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SYSTEM.2024.103584

Zhou, X., Chen, S., Ohno, S., She, J., & Kameda, H. (2024). Motivational design for enhancing behavioral engagement in a flipped Chinese course. Asia Pacific Education Review, 25, 1289-1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-023-09849-x